Explaining the entrepreneurial activity rate of women: A macro-level perspective

This study explains female entrepreneurship from a country perspective. Explanatory variables are derived from three streams of literature, including that on the determinants of entrepreneurship, female labour-force participation, and female entrepreneurship. To test the theoretical relationships, Global Entrepreneurship Monitor data have been used, including total entrepreneurial activity rates for women and men for 2002, as well as a range of economic and institutional variables from standardised national statistics for 37 countries. We found that the factors determining female and male entrepreneurship at the macro-level are fairly similar. An updated version of this ScalesPaper can be found under number N200510.

Start-up capital: Differences between male and female entrepreneurs

Engelstalige uitgave van ‘Financiering van startende vrouwelijke ondernemers’ (bestelnummer A9916). Vrouwelijke en mannelijke ondernemers verschillen in de manier van financiering van hun bedrijf. Dit betekent dat het geslacht van de ondernemer van invloed is op de hoogte van het startkapitaal en op de aard van de financiering. Als de ondernemer een vrouw is, heeft dit positieve invloed op het aandeel bankkrediet in het startkapitaal. Ingegaan wordt onder meer op verschillen tussen mannelijke en vrouwelijke ondernemers, ervaring, onderwijs, parttime ondernemerschap en netwerken.

Overoptimism among entrepreneurs in new ventures: the role of information and motivation

There are various reasons why some entrepreneurs may be more overoptimistic at the start of their ventures than others. We distinguish between four broad categories of determining factors and three areas of overoptimism (income, psychological burden and leisure time) and empirically investigate those for a sample of Dutch start-ups. The first category is information. We find that more specifically informed entrepreneurs are less likely to be overoptimistic while (general) educationincreases overoptimism. The second category is motivation. Entrepreneurs motivated by pull factors are found to be less overoptimistic than those who are ‘pushed’ to start a venture. The third category encompasses personal characteristics such as gender, age, having a life partner and access to other income. The fourth category of firm characteristics includes factors such as sector, take-over versus newly started business, and home-based versus separate business premises. We find little additional explanatory power of these personal and firm characteristics.

Entrepreneurial diversity and economic growth

We investigate the impact of entrepreneurial diversity on national economic growth. More specifically, using data for 36 countries participating in the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor, we investigate whether the impact of entrepreneurial activity is different for different sociodemographic groups. Diversity is measured in terms of age, education and gender. We find that in less developed countries, older and higher educated entrepreneurs are particularly important for stimulating economic growth, while for highly developed countries the contribution of younger entrepreneurs is more important. We do not find evidence for a differential contribution of female and male entrepreneurs.

What Determines the Growth Ambition of Dutch Early-Stage Entrepreneurs?

This paper investigates the determinants of the ambition to grow among Dutch early-stage entrepreneurs (nascents and young business owners). We use Adult Population Survey data of the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) for the Netherlands. Merging cross-sectional data of the years 2002 to 2007, we arrive at a sample of 409 nascents and 336 young business owners. Growth ambition is measured by asking the respondent which statement fits him or her best: (1) I want my company to be as large as possible, or (2) I want a size I can manage myself or with a few key employees. We find that nascent entrepreneurs and young business owners are equally likely to strive after business growth. For nascent entrepreneurs we find that fear of failure and entrepreneurial self-efficacy are important factors explaining growth ambition. Starting a business because of perceiving and exploiting a business opportunity (as opposed to starting a business out of necessity) is an important driver of growth ambition for both nascents and young business owners, although it is more important for nascents.

Early Development of Entrepreneurial Qualities: the Role of Initial Education

This study attempts to create a better understanding of the role of entrepreneurship education in developing entrepreneurial qualities.�Theory and practice are confronted.�The�paper�discusses the extent to which entrepreneurship can be taught, and the way in which it should be taught. The focus is on the phase of initial education.

Determinants of self-employment preference and realization of women and men in Europe and the United States

Female self-employment rates are consistently lower than those of men. This untapped female potential has drawn the attention of policy makers. In the present paper the determinants of selfemployment rates of both men and women are investigated in the context of a two-equation model explaining both actual self-employment and the preference for self-employment. A systematic distinction is made between different ways in which gender can exert influence on (preference for) self-employment,including moderation, mediation and direct effects. Using Flash Eurobarometer data of about 8,000 individuals from 29 countries (including the 15 old EU member states, 10 new EU member states and the United States) probit equations are estimated explaining the (preference for) self-employment. Next to gender, explanatory variables include age, education, social capital, risk attitude, locus of control and perceptions of the entrepreneurial environment. Findings show that at least part of the explanation of the lower female self-employment rate is caused by a lower preference for women to become self-employed. We do not find evidence for a moderating effect of gender on the relationship between self-employment and the preference for self-employment, indicating that�' other things equal�' women and men who have a preference to become self-employed do not differ with respect to the impact of this preference on its materialization. Read also�the new version of this paper: R200803,��"Explaining preferences and actual involvement in self-employment: new insights into the role of gender."

Explaining Preferences and Actual Involvement in Self-Employment: New Insights into the role of Gender

This paper investigates why self-employment rates of women are consistently lower than those of men. It has three focal points: it discriminates between the preference for self-employment and actual involvement in self-employment for women and men. It uses a huge data set from about 8,000 individuals across 26 countries while probit equations are estimated explaining (the preference for) self-employment. And a systematic distinction is made between different ways in which gender can influence the preference for and actual involvement in self-employment, including moderation, mediation and direct effects. Using the Theory of Planned Behaviour we investigate effects of risk attitude,social norms, locus of control, perceptions of the entrepreneurial environment as well as that of an individual’s age and educational attainment. Findings show that the lower preference of women to become self-employed largely explains their relatively low involvement in self-employment and that – other things equal – women and men who express a preference for it, have equal chances of becoming self-employed. This paperis a new version of H200622, "Determinants of self-employment preference and realization of women and men in Europe and the United States"

Allocation and productivity of time in new ventures of female and male entrepreneurs

The present study investigates the factors explaining the number of hours invested in new ventures of female and male entrepreneurs. For new ventures in particular time investment is an important issue, in particular as series of (usually) new and non-recurrent activities is undertaken, laying the foundation of the firm and securing its viability. A distinction is made between factors that influence the number of working hours through preferences or productivity. To test for influences on allocation and the productivity of work time a nonlinear model is proposed that is tested using data of 1256 Dutch business owners (919 male and 337 female) who started a business in 1994. Findings indicate that time invested in the business is determined by various aspects of human, financial and social capital, availability of other income, outsourcing activities and gender. It is shown that some of the identified factors relate to preferences and others to productivity. Women appear to invest less time in the business than men, which is due to an on average lower productivity of work time. This lower productivity can - in turn - be attributed to lower amounts of human, socialm and financial capital of female entrepreneurs, as well as specific ambitions or goals, not directly related to economic performance.

Business accomplishments, gender and entrepreneurial self-image

Drawing on Bem's psychological theory of self-perception, this paper presents and tests a model that examines the impact of business accomplishments and gender on entrepreneurial self-image and explores the definition of entrepreneurship according to Vesper's Entrepreneurial Typology.